Tailoring interventions to close gaps in diabetes mellitus care
Wu, H. et al. Worldwide estimates of incidence of type 2 diabetes in children and adolescents in 2021. Diabetes Res. Clin. Pract. 185, 109785 (2022).
Google Scholar
International Diabetes Federation. IDF Diabetes Atlas 11th edition (International Diabetes Federation, 2025).
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. National Diabetes Statistics Report (2024).
Hill-Briggs, F. et al. Social determinants of health and diabetes: a scientific review. Diabetes Care 44, 258–279 (2020).
Google Scholar
Walker, A. F. et al. Interventions to address global inequity in diabetes: international progress. Lancet 402, 250–264 (2023).
Google Scholar
Warnecke, R. B. et al. Approaching health disparities from a population perspective: the National Institutes of Health Centers for Population Health and Health Disparities. Am. J. Public. Health 98, 1608–1615 (2008).
Google Scholar
Golden, S. H. et al. Health disparities in endocrine disorders: biological, clinical, and nonclinical factors-an Endocrine Society scientific statement. J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab. 97, E1579–E1639 (2012).
Google Scholar
Diaz-Thomas, A. M. et al. Endocrine health and health care disparities in the pediatric and sexual and gender minority populations: an Endocrine Society scientific statement. J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab. 108, 1533–1584 (2023).
Google Scholar
Hill-Briggs, F. & Fitzpatrick, S. L. Overview of social determinants of health in the development of diabetes. Diabetes Care 46, 1590–1598 (2023).
Google Scholar
Zhang, L. et al. Social determinants of health and cardiovascular risk among adults with diabetes: the reasons for geographic and racial differences in stroke (REGARDS) study. Diabetes Metab. J. 48, 1073–1083 (2024).
Google Scholar
Kanny, S., Hall, L. C., Bridges, W. C. Jr & Westbrook Sherrill, W. Development of the Diabetes Index for Social Determinants of Health (DISDOH). BMJ Open Diabetes Res. Care 13, e005113 (2025).
Google Scholar
Silver, S. R. et al. Disparities in diabetes distress and nutrition management among Black and Hispanic adults: a mixed methods exploration of social determinants. Sci. Diabetes Self Manag. Care 51, 24–35 (2025).
Google Scholar
Harrison, C. et al. Prediabetes prevalence by adverse social determinants of health in adolescents. JAMA Netw. Open 7, e2416088 (2024).
Google Scholar
Rocha-Jimenez, T., Torres, I., Cabieses, B., Lopez-Cevallos, D. F. & Mercado-Ordenes, M. Intersectionality, racism, and mental health of migrants arriving at borders in Latin America: a qualitative study based on in-depth interviews with key informants of the cases of Ecuador and Chile. Lancet Reg. Health Am. 44, 101040 (2025).
Google Scholar
Luk, A. O. Y., Fan, Y., Fan, B., Chow, E. W. K. & O, T. C. K. Heterogeneity in the development of diabetes-related complications: narrative review of the roles of ancestry and geographical determinants. Diabetologia 68, 2386–2404 (2025).
Google Scholar
Chiwaridzo, O. T. Austerity measures and the resilience of Zimbabwe’s healthcare system: challenges and solutions. Int. J. Soc. Determinants Health Health Serv. 54, 380–395 (2024).
Google Scholar
Steptoe, A. et al. Disruption of multisystem responses to stress in type 2 diabetes: investigating the dynamics of allostatic load. Proc. Natl Acad. Sci. USA 111, 15693–15698 (2014).
Google Scholar
Ling, C. & Ronn, T. Epigenetics in human obesity and type 2 diabetes. Cell Metab. 29, 1028–1044 (2019).
Google Scholar
Agarwal, S. et al. The role of structural racism and geographical inequity in diabetes outcomes. Lancet 402, 235–249 (2023).
Google Scholar
Chan, J. C. N. et al. The Lancet Commission on diabetes: using data to transform diabetes care and patient lives. Lancet 396, 2019–2082 (2021).
Google Scholar
Neuenschwander, M. et al. Role of diet in type 2 diabetes incidence: umbrella review of meta-analyses of prospective observational studies. BMJ 366, l2368 (2019).
Google Scholar
Martinez-Pinna, J. et al. Endocrine disruptors in plastics alter beta-cell physiology and increase the risk of diabetes mellitus. Am. J. Physiol. Endocrinol. Metab. 324, E488–E505 (2023).
Google Scholar
Pena, A. S. et al. Screening, assessment and management of type 2 diabetes mellitus in children and adolescents: Australasian Paediatric Endocrine Group guidelines. Med. J. Aust. 213, 30–43 (2020).
Google Scholar
Amutha, A. et al. Insulin sensitivity and secretion in youth onset type 2 diabetes with and without visceral adiposity. Diabetes Res. Clin. Pract. 109, 32–39 (2015).
Google Scholar
Klingensmith, G. J. et al. Presentation of youth with type 2 diabetes in the pediatric diabetes consortium. Pediatr. Diabetes 17, 266–273 (2016).
Google Scholar
Kamat, S., Gousse, Y., Muzumdar, J. & Gu, A. Trends and disparities in quality of diabetes care in the US: the national health and nutrition examination survey, 1999-2016. Innov. Pharm.10, 17 (2019).
Google Scholar
Fralick, M. et al. Global accessibility of therapeutics for diabetes mellitus. Nat. Rev. Endocrinol. 18, 199–204 (2022).
Google Scholar
Herkert, D. et al. Cost-Related insulin underuse among patients with diabetes. JAMA Intern. Med. 179, 112–114 (2019).
Google Scholar
Beran, D. & Yudkin, J. S. Diabetes care in sub-Saharan Africa. Lancet 368, 1689–1695 (2006).
Google Scholar
Khunti, K., Millar-Jones, D. & Seidu, S. Therapeutic inertia in type 2 diabetes: prevalence, causes, consequences and methods to overcome inertia. Diabetes Obes. Metab. 20, 427–437 (2018).
Google Scholar
Misra, A. et al. Type 2 diabetes in South Asians. BMJ 390, e079801 (2025).
Google Scholar
Gregory, G. A. et al. Global incidence, prevalence, and mortality of type 1 diabetes in 2021 with projection to 2040: a modelling study. Lancet Diabetes Endocrinol. 10, 741–760 (2022).
Google Scholar
Green, A. et al. Type 1 diabetes in 2017: global estimates of incident and prevalent cases in children and adults. Diabetologia 64, 2741–2750 (2021).
Google Scholar
Ogle, G. D. et al. Global type 1 diabetes prevalence, incidence, and mortality estimates 2025: results from the International Diabetes Federation Atlas, 11th edition, and the T1D index version 3.0. Diabetes Res. Clin. Pract. 225, 112277 (2025).
Google Scholar
Divers, J. et al. Trends in incidence of type 1 and type 2 diabetes among youths – selected counties and Indian reservations, United States, 2002-2015. MMWR Morb. Mortal. Wkly Rep. 69, 161–165 (2020).
Google Scholar
Ogle, G. D., Middlehurst, A. C. & Silink, M. The IDF Life for a Child program index of diabetes care for children and youth. Pediatr. Diabetes 17, 374–384 (2016).
Google Scholar
Saydah, S., Imperatore, G., Cheng, Y., Geiss, L. S. & Albright, A. Disparities in diabetes deaths among children and adolescents — United States, 2000-2014. MMWR Morb. Mortal. Wkly Rep. 66, 502–505 (2017).
Google Scholar
Hohn, A. et al. Large socioeconomic gap in period life expectancy and life years spent with complications of diabetes in the Scottish population with type 1 diabetes, 2013-2018. PLoS ONE 17, e0271110 (2022).
Google Scholar
Rugg-Gunn, C. E. M. et al. Factors associated with diabetic ketoacidosis at onset of type 1 diabetes among pediatric patients: a systematic review. JAMA Pediatr. 176, 1248–1259 (2022).
Google Scholar
O’Reilly, J. E. et al. Rising rates and widening socioeconomic disparities in diabetic ketoacidosis in type 1 diabetes in Scotland: a nationwide retrospective cohort observational study. Diabetes Care 44, 2010–2017 (2021).
Google Scholar
Miller, K. M., Beck, R. W., Foster, N. C. & Maahs, D. M. HbA1c levels in type 1 diabetes from early childhood to older adults: a deeper dive into the influence of technology and socioeconomic status on HbA1c in the T1D exchange clinic registry findings. Diabetes Technol. Ther. 22, 645–650 (2020).
Google Scholar
Auzanneau, M. et al. Frequency of ketoacidosis at diagnosis of pediatric type 1 diabetes associated with socioeconomic deprivation and urbanization: results from the German multicenter DPV registry. Diabetes Care 45, 1807–1813 (2022).
Google Scholar
Lado, J. J. & Lipman, T. H. Racial and ethnic disparities in the incidence, treatment, and outcomes of youth with type 1 diabetes. Endocrinol. Metab. Clin. North Am. 45, 453–461 (2016).
Google Scholar
Griggs, S. et al. Racial and ethnic cardiometabolic risk disparities in the type 1 diabetes exchange clinic registry cohort. Endocr. Pract. 28, 1237–1243 (2022).
Google Scholar
Duca, L. M. et al. Diabetic ketoacidosis at diagnosis of type 1 diabetes and glycemic control over time: The SEARCH for diabetes in youth study. Pediatr. Diabetes 20, 172–179 (2019).
Google Scholar
Ghetti, S. et al. Cognitive function following diabetic ketoacidosis in young children with type 1 diabetes. Endocrinol. Diabetes Metab. 6, e412 (2023).
Google Scholar
Mattila, V. J. & Salokangas, R. K. Life changes and social group in relation to illness onset. J. Psychosom. Res. 21, 167–174 (1977).
Google Scholar
Alonso, G. T. et al. Regional deprivation and diabetic ketoacidosis at type 1 diabetes diagnosis in children and adolescents: international comparison among 6 countries. Horm. Res. Paediatr. (2024).
Google Scholar
Hofer, S. E., Schwandt, A. & Holl, R. W. Austrian/German DPV Initiative. Standardized documentation in pediatric diabetology: experience from Austria and Germany. J. Diabetes Sci. Technol. 10, 1042–1049 (2016).
Google Scholar
Weinstock, R. S., Prahalad, P., Rioles, N. & Ebekozien, O. T1D exchange quality improvement collaborative: a learning health system to improve outcomes for all people with type 1 diabetes. Clin. Diabetes 39, 251–255 (2021).
Google Scholar
Zimmermann, A. T. et al. Treatment regimens and glycaemic outcomes in more than 100 000 children with type 1 diabetes (2013-22): a longitudinal analysis of data from paediatric diabetes registries. Lancet Diabetes Endocrinol. 13, 47–56 (2025).
Google Scholar
Grey, K. et al. Severe malnutrition or famine exposure in childhood and cardiometabolic non-communicable disease later in life: a systematic review. BMJ Glob. Health 6, e003161 (2021).
Google Scholar
Bennett, P. H., Burch, T. A. & Miller, M. Diabetes mellitus in American (Pima) Indians. Lancet 2, 125–128 (1971).
Google Scholar
Knowler, W. C., Bennett, P. H., Hamman, R. F. & Miller, M. Diabetes incidence and prevalence in Pima Indians: a 19-fold greater incidence than in Rochester, Minnesota. Am. J. Epidemiol. 108, 497–505 (1978).
Google Scholar
Dabelea, D., Knowler, W. C. & Pettitt, D. J. Effect of diabetes in pregnancy on offspring: follow-up research in the Pima Indians. J. Matern. Fetal Med. 9, 83–88 (2000).
Google Scholar
del Rosario, M. C. et al. Potential epigenetic dysregulation of genes associated with MODY and type 2 diabetes in humans exposed to a diabetic intrauterine environment: an analysis of genome-wide DNA methylation. Metabolism 63, 654–660 (2014).
Google Scholar
Lucero, J. E. & Roubideaux, Y. Advancing diabetes prevention and control in American Indians and Alaska Natives. Annu. Rev. Public Health 43, 461–475 (2022).
Google Scholar
World Health Organization. Global Report on Diabetes (2016).
Ow Yong, L. M. & Koe, L. W. P. War on diabetes in Singapore: a policy analysis. Health Res. Policy Syst. 19, 15 (2021).
Google Scholar
Elding Larsson, H. et al. Reduced prevalence of diabetic ketoacidosis at diagnosis of type 1 diabetes in young children participating in longitudinal follow-up. Diabetes Care 34, 2347–2352 (2011).
Google Scholar
Cherubini, V. et al. Follow-up and monitoring programme in children identified in early-stage type 1 diabetes during screening in the general population of Italy. Diabetes Obes. Metab. 26, 4197–4202 (2024).
Google Scholar
Gillespie, K. M. Islet autoantibody testing as type 1 diabetes early detection enters mainstream health care. Diabetes 74, 1466–1468 (2025).
Google Scholar
American Diabetes Association Professional Practice Committee. 1. Improving care and promoting health in populations: standards of care in diabetes-2024. Diabetes Care 47, S11–S19 (2024).
Google Scholar
GBD 2019 Human Resources for Health Collaborators. Measuring the availability of human resources for health and its relationship to universal health coverage for 204 countries and territories from 1990 to 2019: a systematic analysis for the global burden of disease study 2019. Lancet 399, 2129–2154 (2022).
Google Scholar
Goroll, A. H. The future of the US physician workforce-challenges and opportunities. JAMA Netw. Open 4, e2134464 (2021).
Google Scholar
Romeo, G. R., Caputo, T., Stanescu, I. W. & Alkhaddo, J. B. The arduous path toward equitable access to endocrinology care. J. Endocr. Soc. 8, bvae134 (2024).
Google Scholar
Turner, A., Ricketts, T. & Leslie, L. K. Comparison of number and geographic distribution of pediatric subspecialists and patient proximity to specialized care in the US between 2003 and 2019. JAMA Pediatr. 174, 852–860 (2020).
Google Scholar
Aye, T. et al. Child health needs and the pediatric endocrinology workforce: 2020-2040. Pediatrics 153, e2023063678J (2024).
Google Scholar
Allen, D. B. et al. Sustaining the pediatric endocrinology workforce: recommendations from the pediatric endocrine society workforce task force. J. Pediatr. 233, 4–7 (2021).
Google Scholar
Ma, A., Campbell, J., Sanchez, A., Sumner, S. & Ma, M. Racial disparities in medication adherence and the patient-provider relationship: does racial/ethnic concordance matter? Health Serv. Res. (2025).
Google Scholar
Odundo, G. O. et al. The impact and successes of a paediatric endocrinology fellowship program in Africa. Int. J. Endocrinol. 2016, 1560248 (2016).
Google Scholar
Anderson, D., Porto, A., Koppel, J., Macri, G. & Wright, M. Impact of endocrinology econsults on access to endocrinology care for medicaid patients. Telemed. J. E Health 26, 1383–1390 (2020).
Google Scholar
Xu, T., Pujara, S., Sutton, S. & Rhee, M. Telemedicine in the management of type 1 diabetes. Prev. Chronic Dis. 15, E13 (2018).
Google Scholar
Wood, C. L. et al. Use of telemedicine to improve adherence to American Diabetes Association standards in pediatric type 1 diabetes. Diabetes Technol. Ther. 18, 7–14 (2016).
Google Scholar
Reagan, L. et al. Diabetes self-management training in a virtual environment. Diabetes Educ. 43, 413–421 (2017).
Google Scholar
Crossen, S. S. et al. Home visits for children and adolescents with uncontrolled type 1 diabetes. Diabetes Technol. Ther. 22, 34–41 (2020).
Google Scholar
Zhang, K. et al. Telemedicine in improving glycemic control among children and adolescents with type 1 diabetes mellitus: systematic review and meta-analysis. J. Med. Internet Res. 26, e51538 (2024).
Google Scholar
Izquierdo, R. et al. School-centered telemedicine for children with type 1 diabetes mellitus. J. Pediatr. 155, 374–379 (2009).
Google Scholar
Rodriguez, J. A., Saadi, A., Schwamm, L. H., Bates, D. W. & Samal, L. Disparities in telehealth use among California patients with limited English proficiency. Health Aff. 40, 487–495 (2021).
Google Scholar
Lopez, L. 3rd, Hart, L. H. 3rd & Katz, M. H. Racial and ethnic health disparities related to COVID-19. JAMA 325, 719–720 (2021).
Google Scholar
Correia, J. C. et al. Telemedicine to deliver diabetes care in low- and middle-income countries: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Bull. World Health Organ. 99, 209–219B (2021).
Google Scholar
Imai, C. et al. Telehealth use in patients with type 2 diabetes in Australian general practice during the COVID-19 pandemic: a retrospective cohort study. BJGP Open 6, BJGPO.2021.0200 (2022).
Google Scholar
Faruque, L. I. et al. Effect of telemedicine on glycated hemoglobin in diabetes: a systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized trials. CMAJ 189, E341–E364 (2017).
Google Scholar
Nimri, R. et al. Insulin dose optimization using an automated artificial intelligence-based decision support system in youths with type 1 diabetes. Nat. Med. 26, 1380–1384 (2020).
Google Scholar
Zale, A. & Mathioudakis, N. Machine learning models for inpatient glucose prediction. Curr. Diab Rep. 22, 353–364 (2022).
Google Scholar
Rajesh, A. E., Davidson, O. Q., Lee, C. S. & Lee, A. Y. Artificial intelligence and diabetic retinopathy: AI framework, prospective studies, head-to-head validation, and cost-effectiveness. Diabetes Care 46, 1728–1739 (2023).
Google Scholar
Huang, J. et al. Artificial intelligence for predicting and diagnosing complications of diabetes. J. Diabetes Sci. Technol. 17, 224–238 (2023).
Google Scholar
Wu, Y. et al. Effect of artificial intelligence-based health education accurately linking system (AI-HEALS) for type 2 diabetes self-management: protocol for a mixed-methods study. BMC Public Health 23, 1325 (2023).
Google Scholar
Guo, Q., Fu, B., Tian, Y., Xu, S. & Meng, X. Recent progress in artificial intelligence and machine learning for novel diabetes mellitus medications development. Curr. Med. Res. Opin. 40, 1483–1493 (2024).
Google Scholar
Joshi, R. D. & Dhakal, C. K. Predicting type 2 diabetes using logistic regression and machine learning approaches. Int. J. Env. Res. Public Health 18, 7346 (2021).
Google Scholar
Pham, Q., Gamble, A., Hearn, J. & Cafazzo, J. A. The need for ethnoracial equity in artificial intelligence for diabetes management: review and recommendations. J. Med. Internet Res. 23, e22320 (2021).
Google Scholar
Yaeger, J. P., Alio, A. P. & Fiscella, K. Addressing child health equity through clinical decision-making. Pediatrics 149, e2021053698 (2022).
Google Scholar
Deutsch, A. J. et al. Polygenic scores help reduce racial disparities in predictive accuracy of automated type 1 diabetes classification algorithms. Diabetes Care 46, 794–800 (2023).
Google Scholar
Kahkoska, A. R. et al. The impact of racial and ethnic health disparities in diabetes management on clinical outcomes: a reinforcement learning analysis of health inequity among youth and young adults in the SEARCH for diabetes in youth study. Diabetes Care 45, 108–118 (2022).
Google Scholar
Tosur, M., Huang, X., Inglis, A. S., Aguirre, R. S. & Redondo, M. J. Inaccurate diagnosis of diabetes type in youth: prevalence, characteristics, and implications. Sci. Rep. 14, 8876 (2024).
Google Scholar
American Diabetes Association Professional Practice Committee. D2. Diagnosis and classification of diabetes: standards of care in diabetes-2025. Diabetes Care 48, S27–S49 (2025).
Google Scholar
Vajravelu, M. E., Okah, E., Bensignor, M. & Karbeah, J. A call to replace race- and ethnicity-based screening with health-related social needs evaluation when assessing risk of type 2 diabetes in youth. J. Adolesc. Health 73, 620–621 (2023).
Google Scholar
Steck, A. K. et al. Predictors of progression from the appearance of islet autoantibodies to early childhood diabetes: the environmental determinants of diabetes in the young (TEDDY). Diabetes Care 38, 808–813 (2015).
Google Scholar
Rewers, M. et al. Newborn screening for HLA markers associated with IDDM: diabetes autoimmunity study in the young (DAISY). Diabetologia 39, 807–812 (1996).
Google Scholar
Kupila, A. et al. Feasibility of genetic and immunological prediction of type I diabetes in a population-based birth cohort. Diabetologia 44, 290–297 (2001).
Google Scholar
Krischer, J. P. et al. The 6 year incidence of diabetes-associated autoantibodies in genetically at-risk children: the TEDDY study. Diabetologia 58, 980–987 (2015).
Google Scholar
Ziegler, A. G., Hummel, M., Schenker, M. & Bonifacio, E. Autoantibody appearance and risk for development of childhood diabetes in offspring of parents with type 1 diabetes: the 2-year analysis of the German BABYDIAB Study. Diabetes 48, 460–468 (1999).
Google Scholar
Skyler, J. S. et al. Effects of oral insulin in relatives of patients with type 1 diabetes: the diabetes prevention trial-type 1. Diabetes Care 28, 1068–1076 (2005).
Google Scholar
Mahon, J. L. et al. The trialnet natural history study of the development of type 1 diabetes: objectives, design, and initial results. Pediatr. Diabetes 10, 97–104 (2009).
Google Scholar
Phillip, M. et al. Consensus guidance for monitoring individuals with islet autoantibody-positive pre-stage 3 type 1 diabetes. Diabetes Care 47, 1276–1298 (2024).
Google Scholar
Ziegler, A. G. et al. Yield of a public health screening of children for islet autoantibodies in Bavaria, Germany. JAMA 323, 339–351 (2020).
Google Scholar
Nakhla, M. et al. Diabetic ketoacidosis at the time of diagnosis of type 1 diabetes in children: insights from TRIGR. JAMA Pediatr. 175, 518–520 (2021).
Google Scholar
Herold, K. C. et al. An anti-CD3 antibody, teplizumab, in relatives at risk for type 1 diabetes. N. Engl. J. Med. 381, 603–613 (2019).
Google Scholar
Sims, E. K. et al. Who is enrolling? The path to monitoring in type 1 diabetes TrialNet’s pathway to prevention. Diabetes Care 42, 2228–2236 (2019).
Google Scholar
Marrero, D. G. et al. The role of advanced technologies in improving diabetes outcomes. Am. J. Manag. Care 31, e102–e112 (2025).
Google Scholar
Karges, B. et al. Association of insulin pump therapy vs insulin injection therapy with severe hypoglycemia, ketoacidosis, and glycemic control among children, adolescents, and young adults with type 1 diabetes. JAMA 318, 1358–1366 (2017).
Google Scholar
Majidi, S. et al. Inequities in health outcomes in children and adults with type 1 diabetes: data from the T1D Exchange Quality Improvement Collaborative. Clin. Diabetes 39, 278–283 (2021).
Google Scholar
Ebekozien, O. et al. Longitudinal trends in glycemic outcomes and technology use for over 48,000 people with type 1 diabetes (2016-2022) from the T1D Exchange Quality Improvement Collaborative. Diabetes Technol. Ther. 25, 765–773 (2023).
Google Scholar
Addala, A. et al. A decade of disparities in diabetes technology use and HbA1c in pediatric type 1 diabetes: a transatlantic comparison. Diabetes Care 44, 133–140 (2021).
Google Scholar
Kanbour, S. & Everett, E. Addressing disparities in technology use among patients with type 1 diabetes: a review. Curr. Opin. Endocrinol. Diabetes Obes. 31, 14–21 (2024).
Google Scholar
Addala, A., Hanes, S., Naranjo, D., Maahs, D. M. & Hood, K. K. Provider implicit bias impacts pediatric type 1 diabetes technology recommendations in the United States: findings from the gatekeeper study. J. Diabetes Sci. Technol. 15, 1027–1033 (2021).
Google Scholar
Odugbesan, O. et al. Implicit racial-ethnic and insurance-mediated bias to recommending diabetes technology: insights from T1D exchange multicenter pediatric and adult diabetes provider cohort. Diabetes Technol. Ther. 24, 619–627 (2022).
Google Scholar
Pereira, R. I. Continuous glucose monitoring access-addressing racial and ethnic disparities in diabetes. JAMA Netw. Open 7, e2445324 (2024).
Google Scholar
Ni, K., Tampe, C. A., Sol, K., Richardson, D. B. & Pereira, R. I. Effect of CGM Access expansion on uptake among patients on Medicaid with diabetes. Diabetes Care 46, 391–398 (2023).
Google Scholar
Global Burden of Disease Health Financing Collaborator Network. Evolution and patterns of global health financing 1995-2014: development assistance for health, and government, prepaid private, and out-of-pocket health spending in 184 countries. Lancet 389, 1981–2004 (2017).
Google Scholar
Jailobaeva, K. et al. An analysis of policy and funding priorities of global actors regarding noncommunicable disease in low- and middle-income countries. Glob. Health 17, 68 (2021).
Google Scholar
Watkins, D. A. et al. Financing policies to sustain improved prevention, control, and management of non-communicable diseases and mental health conditions. Lancet Glob. Health 13, e1973–e1982 (2025).
Google Scholar
Hunt, D. et al. The WHO global diabetes compact: a new initiative to support people living with diabetes. Lancet Diabetes Endocrinol. 9, 325–327 (2021).
Google Scholar
Lamprea-Montealegre, J. A. et al. Association of race and ethnicity with prescription of SGLT2 inhibitors and GLP1 receptor agonists among patients with type 2 diabetes in the Veterans Health Administration system. JAMA 328, 861–871 (2022).
Google Scholar
Wang, E., Patorno, E., Khosrow-Khavar, F., Crystal, S. & Dave, C. V. Racial and ethnic disparities in the uptake of SGLT2is and GLP-1RAs among Medicare beneficiaries with type 2 diabetes and heart failure, atherosclerotic cardiovascular disease and chronic kidney disease, 2013-2019. Diabetologia 68, 94–104 (2025).
Google Scholar
Zinman, B. et al. Empagliflozin, cardiovascular outcomes, and mortality in type 2 diabetes. N. Engl. J. Med. 373, 2117–2128 (2015).
Google Scholar
Tekin, Z. & Saygili, M. The association between medicaid expansion and diabetic ketoacidosis hospitalizations. Cureus 14, e30631 (2022).
Google Scholar
Kim, N. H. & Look, K. A. The effect of reduced drug copayments on adherence to oral diabetes medications among childless adults in Wisconsin medicaid. J. Manag. Care Spec. Pharm. 25, 1432–1441 (2019).
Google Scholar
Schmitt, J., Fogle, K., Scott, M. L. & Iyer, P. Improving equitable access to continuous glucose monitors for Alabama’s children with type 1 diabetes: a quality improvement project. Diabetes Technol. Ther. 24, 481–491 (2022).
Google Scholar
Ahmed, R., de Souza, R. J., Li, V., Banfield, L. & Anand, S. S. Twenty years of participation of racialised groups in type 2 diabetes randomised clinical trials: a meta-epidemiological review. Diabetologia 67, 443–458 (2024).
Google Scholar
Akturk, H. K., Agarwal, S., Hoffecker, L. & Shah, V. N. Inequity in racial-ethnic representation in randomized controlled trials of diabetes technologies in type 1 diabetes: critical need for new standards. Diabetes Care 44, e121–e123 (2021).
Google Scholar
Addala, A., Amedari, M. I., Figg, L. E. & Ebekozien, O. Disparities in access to and use of diabetes technologies and therapeutics: a narrative review. Diabetologia 68, 2430–2448 (2025).
Google Scholar
Rigby, M. R. et al. Targeting of memory T cells with alefacept in new-onset type 1 diabetes (T1DAL study): 12 month results of a randomised, double-blind, placebo-controlled phase 2 trial. Lancet Diabetes Endocrinol. 1, 284–294 (2013).
Google Scholar
Ramos, E. L. et al. Teplizumab and beta-cell function in newly diagnosed type 1 diabetes. N. Engl. J. Med. 389, 2151–2161 (2023).
Google Scholar
Pescovitz, M. D. et al. Rituximab, B-lymphocyte depletion, and preservation of beta-cell function. N. Engl. J. Med. 361, 2143–2152 (2009).
Google Scholar
Haller, M. J. et al. Low-dose anti-thymocyte globulin (ATG) preserves beta-cell function and improves HbA1c in new-onset type 1 diabetes. Diabetes Care 41, 1917–1925 (2018).
Google Scholar
Gitelman, S. E. et al. Imatinib therapy for patients with recent-onset type 1 diabetes: a multicentre, randomised, double-blind, placebo-controlled, phase 2 trial. Lancet Diabetes Endocrinol. 9, 502–514 (2021).
Google Scholar
Battaglia, M. et al. Introducing the endotype concept to address the challenge of disease heterogeneity in type 1 diabetes. Diabetes Care 43, 5–12 (2020).
Google Scholar
Tamborlane, W. V. et al. Eligibility for clinical trials is limited for youth with type 2 diabetes: insights from the pediatric diabetes consortium t2d clinic registry. Pediatr. Diabetes 19, 1379–1384 (2018).
Google Scholar
Harris, M. A. Your exclusion, my inclusion: reflections on a career working with the most challenging and vulnerable in diabetes. Diabetes Spectr. 31, 113–118 (2018).
Google Scholar
Kourpas, E. et al. Factors affecting continuous participation in follow-up evaluations during a lifestyle intervention programme for type 2 diabetes prevention: the feel4diabetes-study. Diabet. Med. 41, e15368 (2024).
Google Scholar
Hirsch, A. G. et al. Using electronic health records to enhance surveillance of diabetes in children, adolescents and young adults: a study protocol for the DiCAYA Network. BMJ Open 14, e073791 (2024).
Google Scholar
Nguyen, T. T. et al. Challenging recruitment of youth with type 2 diabetes into clinical trials. J. Adolesc. Health 54, 247–254 (2014).
Google Scholar
Pena, M. A. et al. Strategies to increase enrollment and retention in pediatric clinical research: a scoping review. Pediatrics 156, e2025070739O (2025).
Google Scholar
Medina Penaranda, R. et al. Strategies for equitable recruitment to engage underrepresented youth and their families into clinical research: findings from the BEAD-T1D pilot study. Horm. Res. Paediatr. (2024).
Google Scholar
Walker, R. J., Grusnick, J., Garacci, E., Mendez, C. & Egede, L. E. Trends in food insecurity in the USA for individuals with prediabetes, undiagnosed diabetes, and diagnosed diabetes. J. Gen. Intern. Med. 34, 33–35 (2019).
Google Scholar
Berkowitz, S. A. et al. Food insecurity, food “deserts,” and glycemic control in patients with diabetes: a longitudinal analysis. Diabetes Care 41, 1188–1195 (2018).
Google Scholar
Mendoza, J. A. et al. Food insecurity is associated with high risk glycemic control and higher health care utilization among youth and young adults with type 1 diabetes. Diabetes Res. Clin. Pract. 138, 128–137 (2018).
Google Scholar
Heerman, W. J. et al. Food insecurity is associated with diabetes self-care behaviours and glycaemic control. Diabet. Med. 33, 844–850 (2016).
Google Scholar
Bercaw, H. et al. Food insecurity and adequacy of dietary intake in youth and young adults with youth-onset type 1 and type 2 diabetes. J. Acad. Nutr. Diet. 123, 1162–1172 (2023).
Google Scholar
Malik, F. S. et al. Prevalence and predictors of household food insecurity and supplemental nutrition assistance program use in youth and young adults with diabetes: the search for diabetes in youth study. Diabetes Care 46, 278–285 (2023).
Google Scholar
Malik, F. S. et al. Household food insecurity and associations with hemoglobin A1c and acute diabetes-related complications in youth and young adults with type 1 diabetes: the Search for Diabetes in Youth study. Diabetes Res. Clin. Pract. 212, 111608 (2024).
Google Scholar
Liese, A. D. et al. Reassessing the burden of food insecurity in youth and young adults with youth-onset diabetes: the importance of marginal food security. Can. J. Diabetes 49, 29–36 (2025).
Google Scholar
Gallegos, D. Effects of food and nutrition insecurity on global health. N. Engl. J. Med. 392, 686–697 (2025).
Google Scholar
Hager, E. R. et al. Development and validity of a 2-item screen to identify families at risk for food insecurity. Pediatrics 126, e26–e32 (2010).
Google Scholar
Holben, D. H. & Marshall, M. B. Position of the academy of nutrition and dietetics: food insecurity in the United States. J. Acad. Nutr. Diet. 117, 1991–2002 (2017).
Google Scholar
Goddu, A. P., Roberson, T. S., Raffel, K. E., Chin, M. H. & Peek, M. E. Food Rx: a community-university partnership to prescribe healthy eating on the South Side of Chicago. J. Prev. Interv. Community 43, 148–162 (2015).
Google Scholar
Shenasi Azari, S., Jenkins, V., Hahn, J. & Medina, L. The foreign-born population in the United States: 2022. United States Census Bureau (2024).
Alarcon, F. J. The migrant crisis and access to health care. Dela. J. Public Health 8, 20–25 (2022).
Google Scholar
Pillai, D. & Artiga, S. Potential impacts of new requirements in Florida and Texas for hospitals to request patient immigration status. KFF (2024).
Hsueh, L. et al. Undiagnosed diabetes among immigrant and racial/ethnic minority adults in the United States: National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey 2011-2018. Ann. Epidemiol. 51, 14–19 (2020).
Google Scholar
Boulle, P., Kehlenbrink, S., Smith, J., Beran, D. & Jobanputra, K. Challenges associated with providing diabetes care in humanitarian settings. Lancet Diabetes Endocrinol. 7, 648–656 (2019).
Google Scholar
Kehlenbrink, S. et al. Strengthening diabetes care in humanitarian crises in low- and middle-income settings. J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab. 107, e3553–e3561 (2022).
Google Scholar
Zung, A. et al. Type 1 diabetes in Jewish Ethiopian immigrants in Israel: HLA class II immunogenetics and contribution of new environment. Hum. Immunol. 65, 1463–1468 (2004).
Google Scholar
Maltoni, G. et al. A comparative study on the incidence of type 1 diabetes mellitus between children of North African migrants and Italian children in Emilia-Romagna region, Italy. Eur. J. Pediatr. 181, 1523–1529 (2022).
Google Scholar
Scheuing, N. et al. Impact of maternal country of birth on type-1-diabetes therapy and outcome in 27,643 children and adolescents from the DPV registry. PLoS ONE 10, e0135178 (2015).
Google Scholar
Predieri, B. et al. Health-related quality of life and metabolic control in immigrant and Italian children and adolescents with type 1 diabetes and in their parents. Pediatr. Diabetes 21, 1031–1042 (2020).
Google Scholar
Limbert, C. et al. ISPAD clinical practice consensus guidelines 2022: the delivery of ambulatory diabetes care to children and adolescents with diabetes. Pediatr. Diabetes 23, 1243–1269 (2022).
Google Scholar
American Diabetes Association Professional Practice Committee. 14. Children and adolescents: standards of care in diabetes-2024. Diabetes Care 47, S258–S281 (2024).
Google Scholar
Gold, H. T. et al. Cost and healthcare utilization analysis of culturally sensitive, shared medical appointment model for Latino children with type 1 diabetes. Pediatr. Diabetes 22, 816–822 (2021).
Google Scholar
Sunni, M. et al. A picture is worth a thousand words: a culturally-tailored video-based approach to diabetes education in Somali families of children with type 1 diabetes. J. Clin. Transl. Endocrinol. 31, 100313 (2023).
Google Scholar
Kane, E. P. et al. Improving diabetes care and outcomes with community health workers. Fam. Pract. 33, 523–528 (2016).
Google Scholar
Maslow, G. R. & Lobato, D. Diabetes summer camps: history, safety, and outcomes. Pediatr. Diabetes 10, 278–288 (2009).
Google Scholar
Wang, Y. C., Stewart, S., Tuli, E. & White, P. Improved glycemic control in adolescents with type 1 diabetes mellitus who attend diabetes camp. Pediatr. Diabetes 9, 29–34 (2008).
Google Scholar
Santiprabhob, J. et al. Glycemic control and the psychosocial benefits gained by patients with type 1 diabetes mellitus attending the diabetes camp. Patient Educ. Couns. 73, 60–66 (2008).
Google Scholar
Valenzuela, J. M., Records, S. E., Mueller, K. A., Martin, M. T. & Wolf, R. M. Racial ethnic disparities in youth with type 1 diabetes participating in diabetes summer camps. Diabetes Care 43, 903–905 (2020).
Google Scholar
Ferrari, G. E., Valenzuela, J. M. & Wolf, R. M. Assessing disparities in barriers to attending pediatric diabetes camp. J. Pediatr. Endocrinol. Metab. 33, 1597–1600 (2020).
Google Scholar
McCurley, J. L., Gutierrez, A. P. & Gallo, L. C. Diabetes prevention in U.S. Hispanic adults: a systematic review of culturally tailored interventions. Am. J. Prev. Med. 52, 519–529 (2017).
Google Scholar
Samuel-Hodge, C. D., Johnson, C. M., Braxton, D. F. & Lackey, M. Effectiveness of diabetes prevention program translations among African Americans. Obes. Rev. 15, 107–124 (2014).
Google Scholar
link
:max_bytes(150000):strip_icc()/garlic-storage-story-18917e7f8ac04fcc9e5515c72dfd266d.jpg "Garlic Benefits and How to Store It")
